General Management Aspects in a School

Following  are  the  common  aspects  of  management  to  which  Head  teacher  play important role for the effectiveness of the school:

 Curriculum Delivery

In  education  a  curriculum  (plural  curricula)  is  the  set  of  planned  activities  to  be carried out in and out-side the institution.
It has four basic elements – Objectives, Content, Methodology and Evaluation. 

Timetable 

Time frame or scheduling is a part of management. The timetable reflects schedule of daily activities.  It  enables  teachers  to  plan  and  follow  a  line  of  action  to  achieve  the desired goals.

 Lesson Plan, Teacher’s Diary and Monitoring 

Lesson  plan  helps  the  teacher  to  plan  and  arrange  their  activities  related  to delivery of curriculum. Teacher’s diary presents the teachers activities. Their monitoring helps to see the progress of the teacher.  Lesson planning should be performed and a regular teacher’s diary be maintained.

 Student’s Diary and Monitoring 

It  is  an  important  source  to  monitor  the  activities  of  the  students  and  evaluating their performance.

 Classroom Management 

Classroom  management  refers  to  the  action  and  strategies  for  effective  teaching and  learning.  Classroom management focuses on ways to establish and maintain workable systems in the classroom.  It aims at classroom climate, physical arrangement, working place of students etc.  academic  achievement,  teacher  efficacy,  and  teacher  and student  behavior  are  directly  linked  with  the  concept  of  school  and  classroom management.

 Assessment of student’s Performance / Evaluation 

Assessment is the process of measurement of student’s performance.  It helps to clarify  and  understand  the  level  of  knowledge  that  a  learner  has  obtained.  The level of knowledge implies that what a student knows constantly changes over time, and that we as instructors can make judgments about student achievement.  Assessment decisions affect grades, instructional needs, advancement, placement, and the curriculum.

 Assigning Duties to Teachers

Organizing principle of management involves assigning duties to teachers. Everybody should be aware of his / her duties and responsibilities. Knowledge of subject matter, Instructional competence, Assessment competence, Professionalism and Nonstandard duties.

 Co-curricular Activities:

Co-curricular activities are the activities that supplement curriculum.  They are essential instrument for mental, social, psychological, physical growth of students.

 Evaluation of Teachers’ Performance 

For  effective  academic  management  evaluation  of  the  teacher’s  performance  is also  necessary  in  order  to  assess  their  needs  and  guide  them  or  nominate  for  training programs. Techniques of teacher’s evaluation are; teacher interviews, competency testing through test, classroom observation, student rating, colleagues review, student achievement, faculty self evaluation.

Staff   Development 


Head  Teacher  has  to  identify  residence  or  aspects  of  staff,  which  need improvement  /  reorientation.  the  major  residence  where  a  teacher  needs  assistance  for professional  growth  are;  subject  knowledge  and  understanding,  pedagogical  content knowledge,  development  of  teaching  and  assessment  skills,  understanding  teaching  and learning, the wider curriculum and other changes affecting teaching, management skills: managing  people:  and    managing  yourself  and  your  professional  development.

Managing Conflicts and Crises in a school

A school head faces a number of problems while leading a school. Therefore, the nature  of  problems  must  be  fully  understood  before  deciding  appropriate  measures. Obviously, the proposed strategies can also serve to diffuse, manage and resolve conflicts in certain specific residence like teacher unionism and student violence. Conflicts / crises need to be visualized as problem.  Good leadership anticipates problems and develops strategies to minimize the possibility of conflicts / crises. In most cases, the head teacher tries to move around, avoid or cover up conflicting situations.

Some times, the head teacher tends to blame teachers, students and bureaucracy which should be avoided.    A  key  group  in  a  school,  of  course,  is  teaching  staff.  Some of teaching staff members may be more qualified, experienced and capable as compared to head teacher.

Some  of  them  might  be  entitled  to  become  head  teachers  but  they  prefer  working  as teachers for professional pursuits and academic freedom. Teaching staff should be treated as colleagues rather than subordinates.  Rationalization of authority in any educational institution is extremely difficult task.  Hence, the head teacher needs to create an environment of mutual trust, respect and understanding.


The  school  head  should  adopt  a  democratic  approach  by  listening  to  teachers, students  and  understanding  their  problems  and  professional  concerns.  He  /  she  should ensure  that  complete  and  accurate  records  of  pupils  and  staff,  stock  registers  are  being maintained  and  kept  safely.  This  will  enable  the  school  management  to  check absenteeism  and  irregular  movement  of  staff  and  school  resources.  The  audit  officers normally  visit  schools  to  check  account  books,  etc  of  the  school.  It  is,  therefore, necessary  for  the  head  teacher  to  keep  proper  accounts  of  income  and  expenditure, vouchers, receipts, etc, duly supported by vouchers.

How Open Letter of Credit and it Operates

Letter of credit is a grantee are an assurance on behalf of the importer (opener) in the favor of exporter(Beneficiary) under taking (pledging) the payment provided the merchandise is ship according to term and condition of the contract. Importer and exporter is a known to each other. It is the bank with Letter of credit which brings them close to each other. The importer approaches the bank opening with:

i. Valid import license
ii. Original copy contract
iii. Invoice or indent
iv. Insurance cover not

They give him a printed form. It covers all the documents. It prepares four copies of that. The original copy of letter of credit is sent to the exporter. Another copy is dispatched to his bank (intermediary). The third copy is give to the opener (importer). The fourth one is kept by the opening bank for record. This is how letter of credit opened. The bank also demands “margin requirements” from the importer. It is a percentage of imports value.

Kinds of Letter of Credit

Irrevocable Letter of Credit

If terms and condition of letter of credit could not be cancelled or modified by any party. Letter of credit is irrevocable change can be made with the mutual consent of both the party.

Revocable Letter of Credit

Any party can change or cancelled the contract by informing the other. The terms and conditions of the contract are kept in view.

Confirmed Letter of Credit

The intermediary bank undertakes responsibility of making payment to the exporter in all cases. The importer may be declared insolvent are merchandise is lost or damaged.

Unconfirmed Letter of Credit

The intermediary bank simply commits to pass on the trade document (Bill of lading and bill of exchange) to the importer through his bank. It takes no responsibility of payment.

Red and Green Clauses Letter of Credit

The Letter of Credit with red clause allows the exporter to get advances for the purchases of raw material merchandise and packing etc. Under the green clause he can also get the advance for transit and storage etc.
When the merchandise shipped the exporter get a bill of lading from a shipping company. He also repairs a bill of exchange. All such documents are sent to the importer through his bank. The opening bank gets the bill of exchange endorsed by the importers. It is sent back to the exporter. He can negotiate it from his bank. It is called discounting. The opening bank gets a trust receipt from the importer. It hands over the bill of lading to the importer for the clearance of the goods. The importer clearance the goods and sell it in the market. He deposits the amount to the bank before the expiry period to the bill of exchange. This is how the Letter of Credit operates

Advantages

For International Trade

Importer and exporter are brought closer to each other with Letter of credit . the bank opens the way for international Trade.

For Exporter

The exporter gets advances for the purchases of merchandise packing transit and storage form his bank under the Red and Green Clauses. It also discounts the bill of exchange and provides him finances for trade development.

For importer

The importer gets the delivery of goods without making any payment from his bank against the trust receipt. He sells the goods and extends the market. It helps in keeping the prices stable in both the market.

For Banks


The opening as well as intermediary bank earned commission, interest and profit in all such transaction. The opening bank gets the margin requirement at the opening of Letter of credit. Intermediary hank earns by advancing under green and Red Calluses. It also earned by discounting the bill of exchange.

Rural Credit, Needs and Source of Rural Credit

Agricultural is a seasonal industry. The output depends upon weather condition. Good timely rainfall products good crops. The crops and the income for the farmer suffer when the weather conditions are not favorable. The farmer earns once a year. He spends throughout the year. The income is small. Expenditure is large. There is a gap which he fails to bridge over. He has to borrow for farming and non farming purpose. The loans taken for all such purpose is called rural credit.

Needs of Rural Credit

 Development Needs

1.     To purchase input like seeds, fertilizers, tools, pesticides and water etc

2.     To reclaim the land affected by water logging, salinity, floods, soil erosion etc. loan are also take for the leveling of uneven lands

3.     To modernize the farming with tractor, harvester, thresher, combine engine and tube well etc.

Non Development Needs

Loans are taken for their payment of old an ancestral loan, for litigation for ceremonies like marriage, festival etc.

Sources of Rural Credit

Individual, Friends, relatives, villager, shop keeper, money lender. Land lord, Trader etc. they all provide about ten percent of the total loan. The amount of loan is small, such loan are repaid as harvest.

Zarai Taraqiati Bank

They provide about 55% of the total loan. The bank provide short, medium and long term loan for development purpose- purchase of inputs, reclamation of land and modernization of farming. It grants loan in cash. Bank also provide development loans such loan are in kinds

Co- Operative Society

They have direct link with the farmer. They provides short and medium term loan to the farmer. The amount of loan is small. People get the loan against personal security, since the borrower is influential person. He seldom returns the loan.

Commercial Bank

Bank provides loan against the lender properly. Banks provide round about 25 % of the total loan. Under the supervised credit scheme, the banks provide cheap credit. State bank of Pakistan cover round about 50% less of the entire loan granted to the farmer. State bank also refinances the commercial bank if they run short of funds.

Taccavi Loan

Government provides relief loan to the farmer in emergencies like flood etc. the amount is small. Such loan is not popular due to the red – tape of the offices.

Causes of Failure of Gold Standard

In Elastic Supply of Gold

Population grew rapidly, economic expanded demand for gold rose up, and gold mine could not supply enough of gold to meet the rising demand.

In Elastic Economy

Elastic economy is the basic conditions of the working of gold standard. Economics were no free after First World War. The develop country like Germany and U.S.A adopted protection policy to develop industry. The developing country introduced license and Quota system. They also adopted exchange control to check imports and export, balance of payment. These worth of hurdles in the free working of this system.

Movement of Gold

Free inflow and outflow of gold is another basic condition of this system. Many develop countries did not follow this practice. USA and France demand gold as reparation interim of gold after the First World War 3.25 of the world gold assembled in these two countries. They dump this gold. They did not inflate their currency. The rest of the world war had not enough of gold to run this system. Thus gold standard broke down.

Abnormal Condition

Gold standard functions in normal condition only. It does not function well in abnormal conditions like wars, political crises and economic depression. The First World War and fit out fall, the changing political position of the world and the great economic depression in 1929 were the main causes of the failure of gold standard. Thus this standard broke down in the world in 1930
Why Gold Standard Broke Down In the World

Gold Standard

When gold determined the value of goods and services and place a vital role in all types of transaction. It is called gold standard. The following rules observe in the gold standard.

Rules of Gold Standards

Currency

All the coins are made of gold. They full bodied coin. Paper money is fully convertible into gold for all types of payment.

Movement of Gold

Inflow and outflow of gold is allowed. Payment can be made in titles to trade (bill of exchange, drafts etc) as well as gold. Govt. does not put any check on the movement of gold.

Co- Relation between Quantity Gold and Quantity of Money

The Quantity of gold is converted into gold coin are equal amount of paper currency is issued. Government does not dump any gold. In case of inflow of gold quantity of money is inflation. In case of out flow of gold the quantity of money deflated.

Free Flexible Economy

Economy is free all the checks. The Govt. does not interfere in the economic life of the people. In case of inflow of gold and the expansion of money, the price of goods and services must rise accordingly vice versa.

Free Trade

Import and export must be free of all the licenses, Quotas, exchange, control tariff (custom duty).

In case of gold bullion standard taken coins circulate. Paper currency is not convertible into gold for internal payments. It is convertible into gold for external payment only with some restriction. Quantity of gold supports the quantity of money. Inflow of gold is allowed economy is free and international trade is without checks. The central bank buys and sells gold on official rate. Bank of England bought gold at 3 ponds seventeen shillings 9.5 pence per ounas. In the gold exchange standard, gold place no direct role in and transaction. There are taken coin paper money is not convertible. Paper money can be converted into the currency of a country which is on gold standard. Indian rupee was taken coin. Paper money was not convertible to gold. Even the Indian rupee could be converted into pounds sterling which wan on gold standard. In this way Indian had gold exchange standard.

Rate of Exchange and How its Determine under Gold Standard

Rate of exchange is a convertible rate. It is rate at which the currency unit of a country is exchange into the currency unit of another country. Suppose 60 rupee are paid for dollar, the rate of exchange:

1 Dollar           =          60 R.S

1 Riyal             =          20 R.S

When two countries are on the gold standard the rate of exchange shell be determine at a point where the gold contents of their coins are equal. It is known as gold or special point. Suppose a rupee coins weigh one gram gold. The weight of dollar is 40gram gold. The rate of exchange is 1 dollar = 40 RS under the gold standard. Both the countries will follower the following rules.

1.     They have full bodies coin. Paper currency is convertible into gold.

2.     Inflow and out flow of gold is allowed for payment and receipts.

3.     There is co- relation between the quantity of gold and quantity of money.

4.     Economy is flexible

5.     International trade is free

The rate of exchange between Pakistan and USA will be stable ate the gold point.

If                           1 Dollar           =          60 RS

Imports            =          exports

Payment          =          Receipt

Demand          =          Supply

The rate of exchange is stable only under static conditions. Since the economy is dynamic the rate of exchange is always changing. Suppose

Pak Imports     =          12 Billion

Pak Exports     =          10 Billion

Pak Payment   >          Receipts

Pak Imports     >          Exports

A dollar will not be available at rupee 60. Pakistani trade has tow option

1.     To move then 60 Rs for a dollar

2.     To exchange gold to U.S.A

Export of gold involves the cost of transport. Suppose the cost of transport of 60 gram gold. It means of Pakistani trader pay 60 RS at the cost for dollar. At this point gold may outflow of Pakistani. It is the gold export out for Pakistani and gold import coin for USA. It is also upper gold coin (60+1) for Pakistan and lower gold coin (60-1) for USA. The rate of exchange will move upper between the upper gold coin and low gold coin the long period. In the short period the rate of exchange will be changes. It will change daily and move along the gold.

With outflow of gold money supply will deflate in Pakistan and inflate in USA. With inflow of gold goodwill will be cheaper in Pakistani and clear in USA. It will promote our export and discourages our imports and receipts will increase and payment will fall.

Vicarious Liability

Introduction

It is said that everyone is responsible for his own acts or his wrong doings. But there are some exceptions in which someone else has to give the liability. In this way, you are innocent but law makes you liable for other’s acts and wrong doings.

Situations of Vicarious Liability

There are three situations in which vicarious liability arises. These are:-

1.     Liability arising out of abetment.

2.     Liability arising out of special relationship.

3.     Liability arising out of ratification and authorization.

Liability arising out of abetment

It is a situation in which you instigate another person to do an act or any kind of crime. In action of wrongs, those who abet the tortuous acts are equally liable with those who commit the wrong.

Case Law: Poulton V. S.W. Ry 1867 (R2Q6534)

Liability arising out of ratification and authorization

It is an action in which you give the authority to another person to do a legal act but the person misuses your authority and does a wrongful act. In this situation, you own that act, for you have not given the authority, which is ratification.

Here, who authorizes the act, is responsible for that act although you are not the wrong doer. This is on the behalf of the third party that what third party wants. This is a proper authorization but that is not for any wrong doing.

For example:   Export of 60 Articles

40 expensive articles               having insurance

20 inexpensive articles            having no-insurance

Your agent makes insurance of all 60 articles, if you own that it is all right about 60 insurance articles.

An act which is illegal and void is incapable of ratification. A ratification of Tort by a principal will not free the agent from his responsibility to third person.

Liability arising out of special relationship

Master and Servant

In this situation, one renders his services independently whether for wages of not. In this way, one obeys the orders of another person and does the acts under his directions and supervisions.

1.     Master’s liability to third person.

2.     Servant’s liability to third person.

3.     Master’s liability to servant.

4.     Servant’s liability to master.

Master’s liability to third person

A wrongful act which is done by a servant in course of his employment, in this, master is liable for servant’s acts and the master has to give the compensation.

“Let the superior be responsible”.

Master is responsible for his servant’s acts to the third person.

Servant’s liability to third person

A servant is not liable for any wrongful act which is done in course of his employment or any kind of non-feasance to the third party.

Master’s liability to servant

In this situation, master is liable is liable to servant, if any physical and personal wrongful act is done by the servant in course of his employment, then master will have to give the compensation to the third party.

“Work’s man Compensation Act, 1925”

In this act, master is responsible to provide him competent fellow servants, if he does not provide such fellow servants, then master is responsible for any wrongful act by any servant or fellow members.

Servant’s liability to master

A servant is responsible or liable to pay back those damages to his master, which had given by the master as compensation to the third party for the wrongful act done by the servant to the third party.

Employer and Independent Contractor

An independent contractor is one who undertakes to provide a given result without being in any way controlled as to the method by which he attains that result. An independent is not under the supervision of his master or for which he does a work. In this way, any wrongful act done by independent contractor and his agents, the independent contractor id responsible for that acts.

Justification of Torts

General Defenses

There are various conditions which when present, will prevent an act from being wrongful in their absence would be wrong. Under such conditions an act is said to be justified or executed. The recognized general defenses are as follows:-

Act of State

It is basically any injury done against an Alien by the servant of that state either previously authorized or subsequently ratified by the state. It is basically English law and no action can be done against English state.

Executive Acts

No action will lie against an officer who executes the orders of a public authority which are valid. So, valid orders of executive are immuned from Law of Torts.

Acts authorized by Legislature or Statutory

If the legislature authorizes an act, no act can be done for that act. No file can be suit against any act authorized by legislature, they are immuned.

Judicial Acts

No action can be done against judges, if they are in their judicial capacity although the motive was malicious. There is immunity for them.

Quasi-judicial Acts

Persons exercising quasi-judicial authority are also immuned from civil action if they observe the rules of natural justice.
Like: Disciplinary committee of university.

Parental Acts

Parents are authorized all over the world to inflict moderate and reasonable punishment upon their children for their betterment. They are also immune in this respect.

Quasi-parental Acts

People performing the duties of your parents in their absence like guardian and teacher, they are also immune if they do an act for the betterment of the children.

Inevitable Accidents

An unavoidable accident which could not be performed by the exercise of ordinary care and skill. No suit can be filed for such an act.

Act of Necessity

It is said, “Welfare of the people is supreme law”.
Due to extreme necessity if you break the laws, you are immuned from Law of Torts. Like: Due to fire, you demolish the next shop because it would be going to catch the fire.

Leave and License

“Volenti Non Fit Injuria”
“Willing person suffers no wrong”.
If the harm suffered voluntarily does not constitute a legal injury, it is unactionable and also immunity from Law of Torts. Like: You, with your own consent doing something, although you that is harmful.

Exercise of Common Rights

If you are exercising the common rights in a proper way and causing damage to someone, it would be unactionable and that person cannot suit a file against you. Like: Damnum Sine Injuria”.

Private Defense

Law allows reasonable private defense (to protect yourself and your property), if injury is caused in exercise of private defense, it will be unactionable.

Mistake of Fact

It may be noted that mistake of law is never be a good defense and mistake of fact is not a good defense. It has no liability in Law of Torts.

Contributory Negligence

In the situation contributory negligence, no damage can be claimed, because it is an expression which implies that the person, who has suffered damage is also guilty of some negligence.

Acts causing slight harm

“Law does not take account of trifling”.

In this respect, it is said that causing slight rather than infringement of legal right are unactionable in Law of Torts.